Archeobotany

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Many of these are native to the British Isles as indigenous native plants, and many are naturalised natives. As a reflection of the UK’s multicultural society, the native plant palette reflects the many migrations in the recorded history of Great Britain.

In a previous post, I wrote about the Roman contribution to native plants that we still use in Surrey gardens. Today’s post is about the Saxon contribution.

The Saxon Botanic Migration

The Romans left Surrey in 410 AD. During the 5th and 6th centuries, Surrey was conquered and settled by the Saxons, who came from north-west continental Europe. The Saxons were Germanic tribes that helped create the English language. Before the Saxons arrived, most Britons spoke Latin or a Celtic language.

In Surrey, we can tell a little about the Saxons by looking at a contemporary map. On a 2026 map, you can see names of Saxon tribes that settled in Surrey have been used in place names. Some example tribe names:

• Godhelmingas (Godalming)

• Woccingas (who settled between Woking and Wokingham in Berkshire).

The Romanesque Garden Style

The Romans brought Rosemary and Acanthus with them when they migrated to Britain. It would be reasonable to assume the Saxons also introduced and naturalised new plants.

The Godhelmingas and Woccingas tribes must have brought some plants or seeds with them, but it is uncertain which plants they used, as no written records survived to the modern age.

I admit, researching this period of UK garden design history was not easy. There is a reason they call this period the Dark Ages. It is hard to get any verifiable history.

Even the architects of the Saxon era are mostly unknown until later in this period, who were classified as Romanesque. Romanesque is the name of a contemporary Saxon style because it borrowed heavily from Roman designs. Most of the works in this style were built on the continent, with the finest example being the Maria Laach Abbey in Rhineland-Palatinate.

During this time, the only available design textbooks were ancient texts from the Roman Empire. The fall of the Roman Empire created a power vacuum that plunged Western Europe into an intellectual darkness.

Roman texts were maintained and collated by the Church, and monks designed most of the gardens I have learned about from this period. I wrote about this in my more general post about Garden Design in the Middle Ages.

This earlier post was written using information I learned from Rhett Beavers, one of my favourite instructors when I studied Landscape Architecture. This chapter in design history was brief and not hugely informative during my training. As a historian of Garden Design, Rhett gave me enough of a taste for this period of Garden History to make me want to really dig into it. The following is what I have learned about Saxon Garden Design, with a focus on Surrey, England.

Saxon Gardens of Surrey

I have recently dug more into this. 🪏

Specifically, I dig how the Anglo-Saxons designed their gardens, and the plants they introduced to Surrey and other parts of Southern England. As this research required some leaps of faith, please feel free to comment or DM if you have any corrections.

Archaeobotany

Using archaeobotany (the study of ancient seeds and pollen) and linguistic clues in Old English, we can presume what plants the Saxons brought with them and cultivated as they settled in Surrey.

The Leek Garden

While the Romans loved formal villas and symmetry, the Saxons were more focused on farming and edible gardens. The Saxons created the “leac-tun”, which is Saxon English for “Leek Garden”.

The “Leac” (Leeks and Onions)

The Saxons held Leeks and Onions (Allium ssp.) in high regard as the most beneficial and occasionally ornamental plants in their gardens. Their love for alliums is such that their word for a gardener was “leac-ward”. While some Allium species were native, the Saxons likely brought improved varieties of Leeks (Allium porrum) and Onions from the Germanic coastal leac-tuns.

The heavy clay of the Surrey Weald is difficult for many crops, but Alliums are hardy and thrive in it.

If you see wild garlic (Allium triquetrum) or heavy clusters of onions in an old Surrey cottage garden, you are looking at the direct descendants of the Saxon “leac-tun.” While Allium triquetrum hails from the Mediterranean, Saxon migrants continued using it after the Romans introduced it during their occupation of Britain.

By the way, Leac-tun literally means “Leak Enclosure”. Tun was a word used for more than just gardens; any settlement that was enclosed was also called a tun.

The Tuns of Surrey

Sutton is a large town in Surrey. Did you know that Sutton is part of the Finger Parishes of Surrey? These are based on the Saxon Tuns of Surrey. From West to East, Cuddington, Sutton, Carshalton, Wallington and Beddington all run in a narrow direction from north to south, like five fingers.

Tun was the Saxon name for a village, which later became Ton, and is the origin of the word “town”.

Each of these 4 Saxon villages was settled in the sandy areas that drain into the River Wandle. Look at the topography of Carshalton; it is a shallow valley that rises in the north (St. Helier) and south (Carshalton Beeches). The central part of the valley is the modern area we now know as Carshalton Village, which is known for its ponds and streams.

Other Saxon Plants

Here are some other plants that the Saxons introduced or cultivated for domestic use in Britain. We could consider many of these to be native plants in the modern era.

Woad (Isatis tinctoria)

While we often associate blue dye with the ancient Celts/Picts, the Saxons were the ones who turned Woad into a major migratory crop. They used it not just for body art, but also for the textile industry that the Saxons started in Surrey and other parts of South East England.

Woad requires nitrogen-rich soil, often found in the fertile patches of the North Downs.

Today, it is often grown as an ornamental for its clouds of yellow flowers. If you find it growing wild near old sheep-farming routes in Surrey, it’s a ghost of the Saxon textile trade.

Medlar (Mespilus germanica)

Some historians argue that the Romans brought it to Britain, and its popularity exploded during the Saxon period. It produces a fruit that must be blet (rot slightly) before it is edible.

Medlars were incredibly popular in the monastic gardens that began to dot Surrey during the Saxon era. A known example was at Chertsey Abbey, founded in 666 AD and long since ruined. Details are scarce because in 1381, the British peasants revolted, and church records were destroyed by the revolting citizens of Egham. Notes from the diary of John de Rutherwyk (1307-1346) survived, and he described a massive garden alongside the Abbey.

The medlar tree is a plant that has a strong association with ancient Europe. As Saxons moved into their British colonies, they brought the Medlar as a high-status fruit tree that could survive damp Surrey winters.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)

Fennel was one of the “Nine Sacred Herbs” mentioned in the 10th-century Lacnunga (a collection of Anglo-Saxon herbal texts). While the Romans introduced it, the Saxons naturalised it into their spiritual and culinary lives.

Fennel is very well-suited to the fast-draining, chalky soils of the Surrey Hills (AKA “The North Downs”). Fennel is found in many modern Surrey gardens, and can be found growing wild in many wooded areas of the County.

The Saxons believed fennel could ward off evil spirits. Its prevalence in modern Surrey herb gardens isn’t just culinary; it’s a remnant of a Saxon apotropaic landscape.

The Damson (Prunus domestica subsp. insititia)

Damask and Damson Plum are commonly found plum trees in modern Surrey. The Damask Plum is often thought to have arrived with the Normans or Crusaders. Damson is said to be a much older immigrant to the UK. Many archaeobotanists believe bullace and damson varieties were brought over by Germanic tribes earlier.

In 2026, you still see these in the ancient hedgerows of the Surrey/Sussex border.

The Saxons were masters of the hedgerow. They didn’t just plant for boundaries; they planted for forage. The wild-looking plum trees in Surrey’s shaws (narrow strips of woodland) are likely the feral survivors of Saxon migration.

Other Saxon Plants

Here are some more examples of plants in the Leac-tun Plant Palette:

• Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), Saxon name: “Mucgwyrt”; often found in a wildlife garden design.

• Betony (Betonica officinalis), Saxon name: “Bishopwort”; popular in cottage garden borders.

• Broad Bean (Vicia faba), Saxon name: “Bean” 😊; staple of Surrey vegetable allotments.

• Apple (Malus ssp.), Saxon name: “Appel”; the ancestor of the Surrey cider orchards.

Surrey for Saxon Gardeners

Surrey’s geography made it a unique landing pad for these plants. The Saxon migrations started from the coasts of South East England, and many Saxon settlers made their home in Surrey. The North Downs provided a highway for people (the famous Pilgrims’ Way follows an even older track), and the Surrey Weald provided the deep soil needed for the heavy crops the Saxons preferred, like cabbage and beans.

A native fern comes to mind. I know ferns that grow well in the damp shade of the Santa Cruz mountains, but not here in Surrey. This week, I decided to research native ferns that could be suitable for this space.

Dryopteris affinis (Scaly Male Fern) is an excellent choice for these specific conditions. It is a robust and bulletproof fern for UK gardens. Dryopteris is specifically suited to the heavy clay and shade of my north-facing driveway. It can be evergreen in the right conditions, although it often goes brown in nature when winter is approaching.

I saw this fern growing wild in the White Down area of Surrey. I came across this area while scouting for MTB trails last Summer. It caught my eye because I used to ride alongside similar ferns at Skeggs when I lived in the Bay Area.

Using Dryopteris in Surrey

If you live in a similar home to my 1930s semi-detached Surrey House, here is why it works and how to ensure it thrives:

Shade Tolerance

While many plants struggle in dense shade next to a house, Dryopteris affinis naturally thrives in these low-light conditions. It is much more resilient to “dry shade” (common under house eaves) than many other fern species.

Clay Soil

It is perfectly adapted to the heavy, moisture-retentive clay found in Surrey. It actually prefers the consistent moisture that clay provides, as long as it isn’t sitting in a literal swamp of standing water.

Urban Resilience

It handles urban air quality well and is virtually pest and disease-free, making it a low-maintenance “set and forget” plant for urban gardens. Surrey may be the most wooded county in England, but much of Surrey is quite urban, particularly in the bedroom communities where many London professionals reside.

Critical Planting Tips for Success

While the plant is tough, the foundation of a typical suburban Surrey home adds 3 specific challenges:

Rain Shadow

The area right next to a house often stays dry even when it rains. This is by design as the roof overhangs slightly to keep rain off the exterior.

Ensure you water the fern regularly during its first two summers until its root system is established.

Compacted Clay

Construction near foundations often leaves the clay soil heavily compacted.

When planting, dig a hole twice as wide as the pot and mix in some leaf mould or well-rotted garden compost to open up the structure.

DO NOT USE SAND. Sand and clay make concrete.

Foundation Salts

Concrete Slab Foundations can sometimes leach lime, making the soil more alkaline.

Luckily, Dryopteris is not fussy about pH and will tolerate neutral to slightly alkaline soil without issue.

Characteristics at a Glance

Botanical Name: Dryopteris affinis

Form: It grows in a classic shuttlecock shape.

Size: Can reach 90cm–1.2m in height and spread.

Foliage: Semi-evergreen. In a sheltered spot in Surrey, it will likely stay green all through winter, only needing a tidy-up of old fronds in early spring.

Visual Interest: The stems are covered in beautiful golden-brown scales (hence the name “Scaly Male Fern”), which look particularly striking when the new fronds “unfurl” in spring. Some varieties have a silver or white underside on their fronds.

Best Time to Plant

The best time of year to plant Dryopteris affinis is in early autumn (September to October) or mid-to-late spring (March to May).

My garden is in Surrey, which tends to be warmer and drier than is typical of the UK. Accordingly, these planting times offer the best balance of soil temperature and natural moisture.

1. Spring Planting (March–May)

The Benefit: Planting now allows you to watch the new “crosiers” (unfurling fronds) emerge immediately. It gives the plant a full growing season to establish its roots before winter.

The Surrey Factor: Surrey often gets dry, bright spells in late spring. If you plant in Spring, you must be diligent about watering. The soil near house foundations dries out much faster than the rest of the garden.

2. Autumn Planting (September–October)

The Benefit: This is often considered the gold standard for ferns. The soil is still warm from summer, but the air is cooling, and the autumnal rains begin.

The Advantage: The roots will quietly establish throughout a mild Surrey winter, meaning the plant will be drought-tolerant by the time the following summer arrives.

Times to Avoid Planting

Mid-Winter (December–February): Avoid planting if the ground is frozen or waterlogged. In heavy Surrey clay, winter planting can lead to root rot if the plant is not established before the ground turns to mud.

Mid-Summer (July–August): While possible with container-grown plants, the intense heat and rain shadow effect next to your house will make it very difficult to keep a new fern hydrated.

Pro-Tip for Clay Soil

If you have clay soil, avoid planting during a very wet week. Working clay when it is saturated smears the sides of the planting hole, creating a smooth, airtight bowl that roots struggle to penetrate. You are essentially creating a clay pot which will girdle roots. Wait for a few dry days so the soil is crumbly rather than sticky.

Surrounding the massive city of London is a green belt where many suburban towns and villages are occupied by people who commute into London. This area is known as the “home counties”. These counties are named Surrey, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire and Kent.

Some fun facts about the home counties:

• Kent is known as “the garden of England”.

• Surrey is the most wooded county in England.

Surrey is where I work, where I spend a lot of time visiting clients and observing native plants (botanizing).

When I walk through a typical garden in Surrey, the homeowners often view their most reliable shrubs and herbs as “quintessentially British.” Yet, much of what we consider the foundation plants in an English garden is actually a living archaeological record of the Roman occupation of this area, back when neighbouring London was known as Londonium.

The Need for Native Plants in UK Gardens

The UK has a lot of native plants available for use in home gardens.

Using native plants is essential in a time when resources are becoming increasingly sparse, as they should be able to survive without too much human intervention like fertilizer or additional irrigation.

The Floristic Region

So, what is a native plant exactly? When I lived in California, it was defined as the plants that were endemic to California before the first Spanish, Russian or other type of colonists came to the region now known as the Golden State.

That said, the area we call California is not the extent of the range of California Native Plants. The range of California native plants includes: Baja California in Mexico, southern Oregon, and some parts of Nevada and Arizona. This range is known as the floristic region of California.

The British Isles is the floristic region for the UK. Unlike California, it has seen multiple waves of migration over thousands of years in recorded history. For this reason, I am writing a new history series on the major migrations to the British Isles and their contribution to the native plants of the UK.

The Roman Invasion

As part of a new series exploring how successive waves of human migration have reshaped the British Isles’ flora, we begin in 43 AD.

The Roman arrival was more than a military conquest; it was a horticultural revolution. For the Romans, a garden was not merely a source of food, but a symbol of Romanitas—civilisation, order, and a tangible link to the Mediterranean home they left behind. These colonists created some of the earliest recorded gardens in the UK. A lot of how they designed their gardens is already covered in my post about Roiman Garden Design. In today’s post, let’s look at some of the “quintessentially British” plants that were brought here by the Romans and still used in modern Surrey, 2,000 years after the Romans set foot in the SouthEast of England.

The Architect’s Foliage: Acanthus mollis

No plant better illustrates the Roman influence on design than Acanthus mollis, or Bear’s Breeches. To a garden designer, the Acanthus is valued for its bold, architectural silhouette and its ability to thrive in the dappled shade of a modern residential plot. To the Romans, it was the epitome of architectural design.

Its deeply lobed, glossy leaves served as the primary inspiration for the Corinthian order of architecture. According to legend, the sculptor Callimachus was inspired by a votive basket overgrown with Acanthus leaves pushing up through a roof tile. In the capitals of Corinthian columns, the stylised leaves of Acanthus mollis are carved into the stone.

By introducing this plant to Britain, the Romans weren’t just planting a perennial; they were sowing the aesthetic of the Mediterranean into British soil. When you see its towering flower spikes in a Surrey border today, you are looking at an ornamental plant that has remained here, 2,000 years after the Romans arrived.

Rosemary

Rosemary is so often integrated into British landscapes that it is easy to forget it is a Mediterranean native. The Romans brought Salvia rosmarinus, AKA the “dew of the sea”, mainly for use as medicine and in rituals.

For the average Roman, rosemary was the herb of remembrance and fidelity.

Rosemary was woven into wreaths for students to improve their memory during exams. Romans used Rosemary cuttings in wedding bouquets and funerals. This association with remembrance survived the fall of the Roman Empire and persisted into medieval England.

In Act 4, Scene 5 of Hamlet, Ophelia names plants that were known for their capacity to ease pain, particularly inward, emotional pain.

In a 21st-century Surrey garden, Rosemary serves a dual purpose: firstly as a structural evergreen and also a herb for cooking.

What is more interesting is the bigger story behind the plant. Imagine hosting a summer lunch near a rosemary hedge; remind your guests that the pungent scent of Rosemary would have been as familiar to a villa owner in Roman Britain as it is to us in a Reigate cottage today.

Boxwood and Sweet Chestnut

Before the Romans, British landscapes were either utilitarian or wild. The Romans introduced the concept of the ars topiaria—the art of clipping and shaping plants. They brought Buxus sempervirens (Common Boxwood) to create the low, formal hedging that defined their peristyle gardens.

Beyond aesthetics, the Romans also landscaped for long-term sustenance. The Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa) was introduced to provide a reliable source of flour (pollard) for the legionnaires.

These trees, many of which are found as ancient, twisted giants in the Surrey Hills, are one of the most enduring relics of the Roman occupation. Sweet Chestnut trees are known to live for at least 700 years in natural habitats. Stands of Sweet Chestnut continue to grow here, and have become naturalised immigrants to the UK landscape.

A Layered Heritage

When I dig into the plants of the Roman era, I realise that often a “native” British garden is, in fact, a beautifully curated collection of immigrant species. These Mediterranean plants were brought by the Romans, who sought to find comfort in a cold, northern province by surrounding themselves with the textures and scents of home.

The Roman Emperor Trajan

Emperor Trajan features often in symbols of Rome. He is often featured in modern monuments related to Roman London as “The emperor who never came — but whose system stayed.”

Although Emperor Trajan never set foot in ancient Britain, his influence is still written into the landscape. Trajan’s reign marked a shift across the Roman Empire from conquest to consolidation, embedding the idea of permanent frontiers, stable provinces, and long-term investment in places such as Londinium.

This was the moment when Britain became not just occupied, but actually settled. It was now administered, planned, and landscaped with confidence by the Roman occupiers. The gardens created during this period were expressions of Romanitas: the imposition of order on nature through design.

Plants like Acanthus mollis, already loaded with architectural symbolism in the Mediterranean world, translated that imperial aesthetic directly into British soil, preparing the ground for the ornamental traditions that still shape gardens in Surrey today.

Preview: Saxon England

Looking forward to the next post in this series: the arrival of the Saxons in the 5th century. The Roman era in Surrey ended in 410 AD, when the Roman administration and legions withdrew from the British Isles.

In the next piece of British garden history, you will see a shift from architectural and ornamental design toward a more practical and pastoral one.

For now, when you next smell the pungent aroma of a Rosemary shrub or admire the sculptural form of Acanthus, remember that you are treading on a landscape first envisioned by a Roman gardener nearly two thousand years ago.

For an example of what I mean: Ceanothus is a beautiful plant that grows well in the UK, and whenever I see it on a street in London, I hate it. I hate it because it doesn’t let me know I am in London. I want to feel like I am in London, a city in the British Isles, not North America.

British Native Plant Movement

Unlike SoCal, the U.K. native plant movement seems less known, but not unknown, amongst keen gardeners.

Homeowners I meet have asked for plant palettes that give a better sense of place, eschewing the generic plant mixes in a typical Chelsea Flower Garden. To these homeowners, they are pleased to learn that not only is there a great history of native plants for their location, but many are able to grow into a beautiful garden without any additional watering.

Surrey sits in the Thames Basin, an area that covers most of London, including its suburbs and satellite cities. The Thames Basin is named after the famous River Thames that runs past the Houses of Parliament in Westminster.

The Thames Basin has been identified as one of 7 regions in the UK that will have severe water stress by 2030. By 2040, the hoses could literally run dry, and gardeners will be prohibited from watering their gardens.

“Seven regions in England will face severe water stress by 2030 as Brits significantly underestimate their daily water usage”

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The use of native and climate-friendly plants will help offset this risk. A secondary benefit is that gardens in Surrey, when planted with native plants, will look like they belong in Surrey and support local wildlife.

Woodland Plant Palette

A simple way to design a garden using native plants is to look at local wild areas, such as woodlands. Here is a sample of woodland plants that can work well in a home garden.

General Ornamental Mix

Common primrose, Primula vulgaris: Low-growing perennial with pale primrose-yellow flowers.

• Pairs with Wood anemone and Bluebell.

Harebell, Campanula rotundifolia: Delicate blue-violet bells on slender stems.

• Pairs withYarrow and Oxeye daisy.

Common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea: Tall spires with purple-pink tubular flowers.

• Pairs with Wood cranesbill and Oxlip.

Oxeye daisy, Leucanthemum vulgare: Classic daisies bring brightness to meadows.

• Pairs with Knapweed and Field scabious.

Common columbine, Aquilegia vulgaris: Graceful nodding flowers bridging spring and summer.

• Pairs with Foxglove and Meadow cranesbill.

Garden-Ready Natives

Meadow cranesbill, Geranium pratense: Vivid blue-violet flowers, long-blooming.

• Pairs with Yarrow.

Small scabious, Scabiosa columbaria: Sky-blue pincushion flowers.

• Pairs with Betony and Red fescue.

Betony, Stachys officinalis: Rose-purple flowering spikes.

• Pairs with Field scabious and Oxeye daisy.

Wild marjoram, Origanum vulgare: Aromatic with warm pink-purple tones.

• Pairs with Yarrow and Wild thyme.

Common knapweed, Centaurea nigra: Bold purple flowers with excellent texture.

• Pairs with Oxeye daisy and Hoary plantain.

Habitat-Specific Palettes

The following plant lists are for specific habitats in a garden. Habitats are what I would have called microclimates, or Hydrozones, in California.

Dry/Sunny Sites

Wild marjoram, Origanum vulgare

Viper’s bugloss Echium vulgare

Rock rose Helianthemum nummularium

Wild thyme, Thymus polytrichus

Yarrow, Achillea millefolium

Shade/Woodland Edge

Common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea

Common primrose, Primula vulgaris

Wood anemone, Anemone nemorosa

Native bluebell, Hyacinthoides non-scripta

Male fern, Dryopteris filix-mas

Meadow

Oxeye daisy, Leucanthemum vulgare

Field scabious, Knautia arvensis

Common knapweed, Centaurea nigra

Small scabious, Scabiosa columbaria

Bird’s-foot trefoil, Lotus corniculatus

Damp/Wet Conditions

Meadowsweet, Filipendula ulmaria

Purple loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria

Marsh marigold, Caltha palustris

Yellow flag iris, Iris pseudacorus)

Water mint, Mentha aquatica

Palettes listed by Plant Type

Sometimes, it can be useful to create plant lists grouped by a plant type. Here are some suitable British woodland plants, grouped by plant type:

Trees & Large Shrubs

Hawthorn, Crataegus monogyna

Hazel, Corylus avellana

Holly, Ilex aquifolium

Guelder rose, Viburnum opulus

Dogwood, Cornus sanguinea

Perennials

Meadow cranesbill, Geranium pratense

Common columbine, Aquilegia vulgaris

Betony, Stachys officinalis

Common primrose, Primula vulgaris

Yarrow, Achillea millefolium

Grasses & Ferns

Tufted hair grass, Deschampsia cespitosa

Red fescue, Festuca rubra

Male fern, Dryopteris filix-mas

Climbing Plants

Honeysuckle, Lonicera periclymenum

Field rose, Rosa arvensis

Ivy, Hedera helix

Southern England’s native flora has a lot to offer. I am totally stoked to get working with them.

One of my colleagues (Kevin) is quite a poet. Kevin says this about UK natives plants :

The key to getting this right is the contrast of form (e.g., fern vs. grass, spire vs. mat) and tone layering (e.g., cool lavender next to warm straw, or mossy greens next to chalky whites).

This is understandable. I get frustrated working on a garden design project.

During a garden design project, it can feel like progress is slow or hard to see. Regular updates reassure clients that real work is happening, even when the site is a mess. For designers, photo records highlight achievements and help maintain momentum. Clear, visual communication builds trust. They keep everyone aligned and celebrate the transformation as it unfolds.

These updates can keep our emotions in check. These updates reassure the client. These updates reassure all stakeholders in a garden design project.

Stakeholders in a Garden Design Project:

• The Client (e.g. homeowner, property owner)

• The Designer (e.g. garden designer, landscape architect, landscaper)

• The Installer (e.g. landscapers, material suppliers, plant nurseries)

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Emotional Check

Each stakeholder has a vested interest in making a garden project successful. Gardens are full of life with fauna and flora in a well-designed garden. In the same way that we say “it takes a village to raise a child”, it takes a village to raise a garden. The villagers are happy when they see the garden come to fruition.

For my garden projects, I warn all clients that there is no overnight success. Natural gardens featuring native plants that support local wildlife take time to mature.

“First Year Slower, Second Year Grower, Third Year Show-er”

The Garden Design process can be a long journey. It is important to keep emotions in check to assure all stakeholders that we are on the right path for success.

I call these progress updates “Emotional Check-ins”, or “Check-in” for short.

We all enjoy checking into a hotel, but the check-out can be sad as it means our holiday is over. Make progress updates as enjoyable as a Hotel Check-in. After a long flight for a trip that you spent months planning for, who doesn’t enjoy that? You can now relax and bask in the feeling that you achieved something. Relax. Lie on a lounger and enjoy the view from the rooftop pool.

How to Check-In on a Garden Design Project

A check-in is included in most garden design projects. For example, when the installer updates the designer. Another example is when the garden designer updates the client. This is usually achieved by sending photos or videos, or by video chatting via FaceTime or WhatsApp.

When the Garden Designer does this for a client, they may ask the client, “How does this make you feel?”.

Rarely does the client ask the designer the same question.

The designer will often use updates from the installer to see how work is progressing. They rarely ask a landscaper how they feel about the project.

Use these check-ins for feedback in both directions. The designer should have a conversation with the client about how they feel. The designer should not be afraid to share their feelings with the client. If you are a garden designer and you have a bad feeling about the project, tell the client. Share the Good with the Bad, and you will build trust.

“Honesty is the best policy”

When I worked with salespeople in a previous life, this was their mantra. It’s a good mantra to live by. Be honest with your client; don’t tell “white lies” to make them feel better. Use the Check-in to get feedback in both directions. During a Check-in, always refer to the garden design plans to keep you honest.

Check-Ins with other Stakeholders

When a garden designer checks in with their installer, do the same as you would with a client. Tell the installer how the client feels, how you feel, and ask how they feel about the project. When installers feel like they are part of the village, they take pride in their work. If they are proud of the work they do, they will provide feedback. Garden designers can use this as a teaching moment.

Many successful designers will have close relationships with their landscapers and other sub-contractors. Doing these check-ins may feel like a no-brainer. If so, try to go one step further and share the installer’s emotional feedback with the client. Being open and transparent to the client is generally well-received.

Do not forget the check-ins with suppliers. Spend time with the plant nursery staff and give them feedback about projects. They will love to know how the plant that they nurtured from seed or cutting is now growing into a mature living thing with its own identity. They helped raise a child that was then released into your care and now has a new home in the client’s garden. Let the stoneyards know about how you used their rocks and boulders. I have gotten a lot of good ideas from hanging out in material yards. I doubt these ideas would be so forthcoming if I did not check-in with these other villagers.

Spilling the Tea

In the village of garden design, I am the garden designer. Garden Designers often need to be project managers. Project managers make sure everything is working smoothly. Sometimes I feel like the village gossip, as I need to convey all these feelings from the check-ins and share information. I am always spilling the tea.

To keep the check-in grounded and prevent slipping into idle gossip, I use visual aids.

Visual Aids for Check-Ins

Visual communication is key to success in garden design. I am OK with writing on paper like a boomer, but I prefer to use a tablet. Using a tablet such as an iPad, I can take a picture and annotate over it, like tracing paper. This helps visualise information in a powerful way. It helps to communicate with others and also to help others communicate with me.

Below is a simple example where I was explaining the basic size of a raised planter that I built for a client. They worried it was going to be too big. I needed to explain that it would also serve to drain stormwater from their patio (as indicated by the arrows).

As you can see, these visual aids do not need to be detailed or works of art. They can be chicken scratches like this. It helps the conversation rather than distracting from it.

By keeping it simple, I sometimes also pass the pencil over to my client, who can explain how they feel. In the next example, the client showed me how they feel about a “wavy pathway”. I was describing a serpentine path in my design. Using this simple tool allowed us to be both on the same page and deal with the anxiety that we felt and expressed in the check-in.

Other Aids for Check-Ins

Sometimes, a kind gesture is all that is needed to get the emotional check-ins on the right track. A simple example of this is a gift.

Be awesome to the rest of the village, and they will be awesome in return.

In a natural garden, not all plants are planted by hand, and so it may be difficult to determine what is a weed versus an errant wildflower that grew from a seed sown in a previous season.

To help answer that question, we need to ask, What exactly is a weed? The correct definition is that a weed is any plant that is undesirable in its situation, or more simply, a plant growing where it is not wanted. For a natural garden, it can be difficult to determine which plants are undesirable, especially in situations where you are growing a meadow or prairie-style planting area. For traditional gardens, weed identification is mostly an aesthetic choice, but for a natural garden, we need to think about it differently.

For natural gardens, consider which plants can be detrimental to your garden and manage plants based on their ability to out-compete other plants. In doing so, you are considering how invasive they are.

If you are managing a native plant landscape, the simplest first step to identify a weed is whether they are native or non-native plants. Non-native plants should be removed if you want to keep the garden 100% native. That said, there are native plants that would be considered invasive and undesirable even in a native garden. If they can take over a space and suppress other plants, then you may not want these growing in your garden. English Ivy (Hedera Helix) in European gardens is a good example of this.

For this reason, if you are growing an area by seed, pay attention to the seedlings that emerge and quickly identify which plants are undesirable before they mature and establish themselves. Identifying a seedling can be difficult, so there may be some trial and error involved until you start to identify them properly.

If you are growing a natural garden that uses a mixture of native plants and plants that can grow naturally in your climate, understanding the invasive potential of a plant is key. And by this, I mean the invasive potential in your local climate. The reason I make this distinction is that while researching or discussing plants online, some people may remark that a plant is invasive and shouldn’t be used, but that is based on how invasive it is to their locale. It may not be invasive locally to where you live.

The best way to understand how invasive a plant is to your locale is to consult a local list of invasive plants. For example, if you are in California, the California Invasive Plant Council is a good resource. You might be surprised to discover that some highly invasive plants are commonly sold in local plant nurseries.

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The Roots of Modernism in Garden Design

Modernism in landscape design developed in tandem with movements in art, architecture, and design that rejected excessive ornamentation and historical pastiche. Where previous garden styles quite often looked to the past, modernist gardens looked forward.

The philosophy for modernism is simple: design for modern life. This meant spaces that were practical, beautiful, and deeply integrated with contemporary architecture. Influenced by the Bauhaus, De Stijl, and the International Style, designers emphasized form following function, clean geometry, and honesty in materials.

Key Principles of Modernist Gardens

Minimalism and Clarity

Modernist gardens are known for their minimalism. This doesn't mean barren spaces, but rather the thoughtful elimination of excess. Every element serves a purpose, and the result is a serene, uncluttered environment that encourages reflection and connection.

Geometric Structure

Geometry plays a central role in modernist garden design. Rectangles, squares, and circles are used in paving, planting beds, water features, and lawn shapes. These clean lines create order and contrast with the organic forms of plants.

Integration with Architecture

One of the defining features of modernist gardens is their relationship to architecture. They are designed as extensions of the home, using similar materials and aligning sightlines, thresholds, and forms. Floor-to-ceiling windows, patios, and open-plan layouts allow for seamless indoor-outdoor living.

New Materials

Modernist gardens embrace industrial and modern materials like poured concrete, steel, glass, and smooth stone. These materials are often left exposed to celebrate their textures and structural honesty. Timber, gravel, and metals like cor-ten steel also feature prominently.

Asymmetry and Spatial Flow

Unlike traditional formal gardens that rely on symmetry, modernist gardens often use asymmetrical balance. This creates dynamic, flowing spaces that feel open and responsive to human movement and natural growth patterns.

Sculptural Planting

Planting in modernist gardens is intentional and often sculptural. Plants are chosen for their form, texture, and seasonal interest rather than just for flower color. Repetition of species and careful placement enhance rhythm and unity.

Notable Figures in Modernist Garden Design

Thomas Church

An influential American landscape architect, Church is often credited with bringing modernist principles to residential gardens. His work in California embraced outdoor living, functional beauty, and curvilinear forms, as seen in the iconic Donnell Garden (1948), with its famous kidney-shaped pool.

Roberto Burle Marx

A Brazilian visionary, Burle Marx revolutionized tropical landscape design. He treated gardens as living paintings, using bold sweeps of color, native plants, and modern abstraction. His work includes the famous Copacabana Beach promenade in Rio de Janeiro.

Dan Kiley

Kiley was a master of combining geometry with natural beauty. His design for the Miller House Garden in Indiana is a quintessential example of modernist landscape architecture, featuring a grid of trees, modern sculptures, and clean outdoor rooms.

Garrett Eckbo and James Rose

These American designers pushed the boundaries of landscape design in the mid-20th century. They emphasized social functionality, community spaces, and innovative planting combinations, contributing to the modernist dialogue with fresh perspectives.

Examples of Modernist Gardens and Landscapes

Miller House Garden, Indiana, USA (Dan Kiley)

Copacabana Beach promenade, Rio de Janeiro (Burle Marx)

Donnell Garden, Sonoma, California (Thomas Church)

MoMA Sculpture Garden, New York (Philip Johnson and James Fanning)

Design Elements and Features

Hard Landscaping

Paths, patios, and walls in modernist gardens are simple, linear, and functional. Concrete, steel, and stone are favored, often in large slabs or modular formats. Raised planters, cantilevered benches, and retaining walls are used to define space and add height.

Water Features

Water is used sparingly but effectively—still reflecting pools, sleek , or geometric fountains. These elements add movement, sound, and tranquility without overpowering the garden.

Outdoor Living Spaces

Modernist gardens are meant to be lived in. Decks, terraces, and seating areas are designed for comfort and utility. Furniture is often modern in style: low, modular, and weather-resistant.

Lighting and Art

Subtle, integrated lighting enhances the garden's mood and usability at night. Modern sculptures or installations provide visual interest and act as focal points. Abstract forms and materials echo the architectural language of the house.

Planting in a Modernist Garden

Plant selection is crucial. Rather than a wide variety of species, designers often use fewer types but plant them in bold, rhythmic groupings. Plants with architectural shapes like agaves, grasses, or clipped shrubs are favored.

Native and drought-tolerant plants are popular, especially in climates where water conservation is key. Evergreens ensure year-round structure, while perennials offer seasonal variation. Vertical interest may come from multi-stemmed trees, such as birch or olive.

Color palettes tend to be muted: silvers, greens, purples, and whites dominate, with occasional bright accents. Texture and form take precedence over floral abundance.

Modernist Gardens Today

Modernist garden principles continue to influence contemporary design. In urban environments, where space is limited, the clarity and efficiency of modernist layouts are especially valuable. Designers today adapt these ideas with ecological awareness, incorporating native planting, rain gardens, and sustainable materials.

In places like California, Australia, and southern Europe, the modernist garden remains a practical and stylish choice. Meanwhile, minimalist courtyards in cities like Tokyo or Copenhagen show how the essence of modernism can be scaled down to even the smallest outdoor spaces.

Why Choose a Modernist Garden?

A modernist garden is ideal for those who appreciate clean design, structured planting, and harmony with modern architecture. It offers a calm, meditative outdoor space with high functionality and low maintenance.

Whether it's a private courtyard or a public park, the principles of modernist garden design remain timeless: simplicity, elegance, and connection to place.

Creating Your Own Modernist Garden: Tips to Get Started

• Think in clean lines: use rectangles or swooping curves to define paths and beds.

• Limit your plant palette: choose structural, low-maintenance species.

• Use modern materials: concrete, cor-ten steel, smooth stone, and hardwood.

• Keep furniture simple and modern.

• Connect indoors and out: align views, doors, and windows with garden elements.

• Add focal points: a sculpture, water feature, or tree with striking form.

• Light it thoughtfully: use hidden or low-profile fixtures to enhance atmosphere.

By embracing these ideas, you can create a garden that feels modern, timeless, and deeply personal—a quiet space where design and nature meet in perfect balance.

How the Arts and Crafts Movement Began

The Arts and Crafts movement began around 1880 as a reaction to the rise of factories and mass production during the Victorian era. Many designers felt that factory-made goods were dull and lacking in soul, and they wanted to go back to handmade items made with care and skill. They believed that useful things should also be beautiful.

One of the key leaders of the movement was William Morris, who believed that hand-crafted items were better not just in looks but also in spirit. This idea naturally spread into garden design. Gardens became an important part of the home: an outdoor room where beauty and function worked together.

Key Figures in Arts and Crafts Gardening

One of the most famous names in Arts and Crafts garden design is Gertrude Jekyll (1843–1932). She was a trained artist and had a great understanding of color. She used that knowledge to plan gardens that looked like living paintings. She often worked with architect Sir Edwin Lutyens, and together they created gardens that combined strong structure with soft, colorful planting.

Other important designers included:

• William Robinson, who supported wild, natural-looking gardens.

• Harold Peto, who added Italian and classical styles to his designs.

• Thomas Mawson, a landscape architect who blended formal structure with a more relaxed planting style.

What Makes an Arts and Crafts Garden

Garden Rooms

One of the key features of this style is dividing the garden into separate "rooms". These spaces are usually surrounded by hedges, walls, or wooden structures. Each room has a special theme or use: like a rose garden, a vegetable plot, or a flower-filled meadow.

Mixing Structure and Soft Planting

These gardens are known for their mix of clear structure and gentle, romantic planting. You’ll often find straight paths, stone terraces, and neat layouts, with borders full of colorful, flowing plants. This mix creates a space that feels both ordered and alive.

Handmade and Local Materials

Staying true to the movement’s values, Arts and Crafts gardens use hand-crafted and local materials. You might see dry stone walls, wooden pergolas, and clay pots made by hand. These details give the garden a unique, personal touch.

Interest All Year Round

These gardens are designed to be interesting in every season. Gertrude Jekyll was famous for her planting plans that made sure something was always blooming or changing color. Gardeners also choose plants for their smell, texture, and ability to attract bees and butterflies.

Connecting Home and Garden

In Arts and Crafts style, the garden is seen as an extension of the house. Paths often line up with doorways and windows, and materials from the house, like stone or brick, are used in the garden too. These gardens also try to blend into the surrounding landscape, making it feel like part of nature rather than something separate.

How Plants Are Used

Arts and Crafts planting is often described as painterly. Gertrude Jekyll planned her gardens like an artist using color schemes, different plant heights, and textures to create a beautiful scene.

Popular plants include:

• Perennials: like delphiniums, lupines, and hollyhocks;

• Climbers: such as clematis and rambling roses;

• Shrubs: including lavender, hydrangea, and box;

• Edibles and herbs: often grown in beautiful patterns among the flowers.

Plants are arranged in layers to make the borders look deep and full. Gardeners also make sure different plants bloom at different times, so the garden changes and stays exciting through the seasons.

How Does an Arts and Crafts Garden Differ from a Cottage Garden?

The seemingly informal nature of Arts and Crafts gardens has caused some people to confuse them with cottage gardens. While both garden styles celebrate natural beauty and traditional planting, they have distinct differences in design and intention:

Structure and Layout

• Arts and Crafts gardens are carefully designed with a strong underlying structure. They often feature terraces, axial paths, defined “rooms,” and built elements that link the house to the garden.

• Cottage gardens are much more informal and less structured. Paths meander, plantings are densely packed and spontaneous, and there is little sense of geometric order.

Design Philosophy

• Arts and Crafts gardens reflect a blend of formality and informality. They are artistically composed, with great thought given to harmony, proportion, and seasonal change. The architecture of the house and garden are tightly connected.

• Cottage gardens come from a more functional and humble tradition, originally used to grow both food and flowers. Their design is more about charm and abundance than visual planning.

Materials and Craftsmanship

• Arts and Crafts gardens highlight craftsmanship with locally sourced materials such as stone walls, custom gates, pergolas, and handmade pots.

• Cottage gardens tend to use simpler, often reused materials, such as picket fences, stone borders, or timber edging, more for practicality than artistic effect.

Planting Style

• Both styles use traditional flowers like hollyhocks, delphiniums, and roses, but:

  • Arts and Crafts gardens use plants in carefully orchestrated combinations, emphasizing texture, color harmony, and succession planting.

  • Cottage gardens embrace a joyful jumble of plants, mixing edibles, herbs, and ornamentals in a seemingly haphazard (but charming) way.

Famous Gardens You Can Visit in the UK

Hestercombe Gardens, Somerset

Designed by Jekyll and Lutyens, Hestercombe is known for its lovely terraces, water features, and carefully planned borders. It’s a great example of structure and soft planting working together.

Hidcote Manor Garden, Gloucestershire

American designer Lawrence Johnston created this garden using the idea of outdoor rooms. Each section has its own style and mood, and the whole place feels calm and enclosed.

Great Dixter, East Sussex

The house at Great Dixter was built by Lutyens as a romantic recreation of a medieval manor and the garden was created by Christopher Lloyd. The garden mixes bold plant choices with traditional layouts.

Sissinghurst Castle Garden, Kent

One of England’s most famous gardens, designed by Vita Sackville-West and Harold Nicolson. Its layout with separate areas, rich planting, poetic feel combined with formal hedging reflect the Arts and Crafts spirit very well. Walls and formal hedges are used to separate the space into multiple garden rooms.

Why This Style Still Matters

Arts and Crafts gardens have had a big impact on how we design outdoor spaces. Their focus on quality materials, beauty in every season, and harmony with nature is still very important today. In a busy world, these gardens remind us to slow down and enjoy the small details.

Whether you're walking through a famous estate or working on your own backyard, this style encourages a deeper connection with nature. It’s about making something lasting, meaningful, and full of life.

How to Create Your Own Arts and Crafts Garden

If you’d like to try this garden style at home, here are a few basic tips:

• Use local, natural materials for paths, walls, and garden features.

• Divide your garden into smaller sections (rooms), each with a different purpose.

• Choose traditional plants and arrange them in layers.

• Think like an artist: plan for color, shape, and seasonal changes.

With these ideas, you’re not just planting flowers; you’re creating a space with heart, tradition, and a sense of beauty that will grow over time.

Wabi-sabi is a deeply rooted Japanese aesthetic philosophy that celebrates imperfection, impermanence, and finding beauty in the simplicity of nature.

In Japanese garden design, wabi-sabi manifests through asymmetry, aged materials, and an appreciation for the transient nature of life. This philosophy contrasts sharply with Western ideals of symmetry, perfection and control over nature, instead embracing the beauty of natural imperfection and the passage of time.

Origins of Wabi-Sabi in Garden Design

The concept of wabi-sabi originated from Zen Buddhism, particularly from the teachings of impermanence (mujō) and simplicity. It was an influence on Japanese tea ceremony aesthetics, where rustic and unpretentious elements began to be preferred over elaborate and luxurious designs in the Edo period.

The words wabi and sabi are difficult to translate directly into English as they can be used to convey a broad range of ideas and emotions. In the context of garden design , this is how I would describe the term in English:

• Wabi (侘び) – A sense of rustic simplicity, solitude, and understated elegance.

• Sabi (寂び) – The beauty found in natural aging, patina, and the wear of time.

Wabi-sabi gardens reflect these principles by emphasizing natural materials, irregular forms, and the passage of time through moss-covered stones, weathered wood, and asymmetrical layouts.

6 Key Elements of Wabi-Sabi in Japanese Gardens

1. Asymmetry and Imperfection

Unlike Western formal gardens, which often rely on symmetry and geometric precision, wabi-sabi gardens use irregular arrangements of stones, plants, and pathways. This asymmetry reflects nature’s organic, unstructured beauty.

Example: A winding stone path that subtly guides visitors rather than a straight, rigid walkway.

2. Natural Materials and Weathering

A core principle of wabi-sabi is the use of materials that age gracefully, acquiring a patina over time. Gardens often incorporate:

• Moss-covered stones – Symbolizing age, wisdom, and the passage of time.

• Aged wooden gates and fences – Weathered surfaces highlight nature’s effect on man-made structures.

• Rustic bamboo fences – Showing the beauty of impermanence as they naturally decay over time.

Example: A traditional torii gate that has aged with time, its wood darkened and softened by nature’s elements.

3. Muted, Earthy Colors

Wabi-sabi gardens avoid bright, artificial colors, favoring a palette inspired by nature:

• Soft greens (moss, trees, bamboo)

• Muted browns (aged wood, earth)

• Subtle grays (stone, sand)

This understated approach enhances the tranquil, meditative atmosphere.

Example: A moss garden with delicate green hues blending seamlessly with stone and wood.

4. The Beauty of Emptiness (Ma 間)

Wabi-sabi gardens incorporate negative space (ma) to create a feeling of openness and contemplation. Ma (間) is a concept in Japanese arts to appreciate negative space. Instead of filling every area with plants or decoration, designers use empty spaces to evoke simplicity and mindfulness.

Example: A raked gravel area in a Zen garden, left deliberately open to represent stillness and infinite potential.

5. Seasonal Awareness and Ephemerality

A wabi-sabi garden is designed to change with the seasons, reflecting the natural cycle of growth, decay, and renewal. The impermanence of blossoms, falling leaves, or the slow growth of moss embodies life’s fleeting beauty.

• Spring – Cherry blossoms (sakura) bloom briefly, symbolizing the ephemeral nature of life.

• Autumn – Fiery maple leaves fall, emphasizing the beauty of aging and transition.

• Winter – Bare trees and subtle snow-covered stones create a minimalist, reflective scene.

Example: A pond reflecting the delicate petals of falling sakura, reminding visitors of life's fleeting nature.

6. Subtle Water Features

Rather than grand fountains or waterfalls, wabi-sabi gardens incorporate subtle, natural water elements:

• Small, gently flowing streams

• A simple stone basin (tsukubai) used in tea gardens

• Still ponds with floating leaves and reflections

These quiet water features evoke a sense of calm, reinforcing the meditative qualities of the space.

Modern Applications of Wabi-Sabi in Garden Design

Even in contemporary settings, wabi-sabi principles can guide garden design:

• Using reclaimed wood or aged stone for pathways and furniture.
  

• Allowing moss to grow naturally on surfaces rather than removing it.
  

• Designing irregular plant groupings rather than rigid rows.
  

• Incorporating natural patinas, such as rusted metal sculptures or oxidized stone. Cor-ten steel is a great material that has a rust-like patina and can be used for fencing or planters.
  

The Timeless Beauty of Wabi-Sabi Gardens

Wabi-sabi gardens invite us to slow down, appreciate the passage of time, and find beauty in the imperfect. Whether it's the weathered surface of a stone, the asymmetry of a tree’s branches, or the quiet rustling of bamboo in the wind, these gardens cultivate a deep sense of peace and mindfulness.